Origin, history and connection of the languages of western asia and europe, with an explanation of the principles on which languages are formed

Now in Arabic, the general signification of רגע is to return, to repeat, to withdraw, which may be from drawing back; a different application of the original sense, to strain, stretch, or extend.

The root רוק in Chaldee. signifies to spit, and this is probably the Latin ructo, somewhat varied in application. The same verb in Arabic رَاقَ‎ rauka, signifies to drive off, to reject; to shoot or grow long, as teeth; to strain, purify or make clear, as wine; precisely the English to rack; also to spread, and to pour out. Hebrew רק, to empty, to draw out, to attenuate or make thin; and as a noun, spittle; Syriac, to spit, to draw out, to attenuate; Samaritan, to pour out, to draw out, to extend; Ethiopic, to be fine, slender, or thin; Arabic, to be soft, tender, thin. The verb רך, has a like signification, and is perhaps from the same original root; רקע, Hebrew, to spread, stretch, extend. But, says Castle, all the ancient interpreters rendered the word, to ordain, establish, make firm; to strike, to beat, as plates of metal. But the sense is to stretch, to spread, and the beating is only the means of extending. Hence רקיע, the firmament, which agrees well with Lat. regio, an extent; in Hebrew, properly, an expanse. And to reconcile the ancient and modern interpretations of this word, let it remembered that strength and firmness are usually or always from stretching, tension.

Now let us hear Ainsworth on the word regio. “Regio a rego quod priusquam provinciæ fierent, regiones sub regibus erant atque ab his regebantur.” How much more natural is it to deduce regio from the primary sense of rego, which is to stretch, to strain, to extend! Regio is an extent, a word of indefinite signification.

In Chaldee and Arabic this verb signifies to mend, to repair, to make whole, from extending, spreading over, or making strong. See the root כל infra.

We observe that רגג and רקע agree, in original signification, with the English reach, on the root of which or some of its derivatives, was formed stretch. That ברך, פרך and פרק were formed on any of the foregoing biliteral roots, we may not be able to affirm; but it is certain from the Welsh, that the first consonant of the triliteral root is a prefix, and it is certain from the Shemitic languages, that the primary sense is the same in the biliteral and triliteral roots, or that all the applications or particular significations may readily be deduced from one general signification.

To illustrate this subject more fully, let us attend to the various applications of some other Shemitic words of extensive use.

2. To form by accretion or concretion of matter. Gen. i. 21.

3. In Hiph. to make fat; to fatten or batten. 1 Sam. ii. 29.

4. To do or perform something wonderful. Num. xvi. 30.

5. In Niph. to be renewed. In Kal. to renew, in a spiritual sense. Ps. li. 12.

Castle says,

1. To create from nothing, or to produce something new or excellent from another thing. Gen. i. Is. xlii. 5.

2. In Niph. to be renewed or re-created. Is. xlviii. 7. Ps. cii. 19.

3. To cut off; to take away; to bear away, or remove; also to select; to prepare. Josh. xvii. 15, 18. Ezek. xxiii. 47.

Gesenius says,

1. Strictly, to hew, to hew out. [Ar. cut, to cut out, to plane.]

2. To form; to make; to produce. Ar. برا The order of significations is, as in the Ar. خلق galaka, to be smooth, to make smooth. 2. To plane. 3. To form, make. Gen. i. 1, 21, 27.

1. Niph. passive of Kal. No. 2. Gen. ii. 4.

2. To be born. Ezek. xxi. 30. Ps. cii. 18.

Pi. ברא, the verb differently pointed; to hew, to cut down. Josh. xvii. 15, 18.

2. To cut down with the sword; to kill. Ez. xxiii. 47.

3. To make fat. 1 Sam. ii. 29.

Thus far the Hebrew.

Chal. ברא, to create. Gen. i. 1.

2. To cut off. Is. xl. 20.

3. To make fat; to grow sound or strong. Talm.

Deriv. Fat; whole; sound; strong. Castle.

Syr. ܒܪܐ, to create. Gen. i. 1. Mark xiii. 19.

2. To remove to a distance; and Deriv. distance, distant. Castle.

Sam. )rb, to create. Gen. i. 22. Deut. iv. 32. Castle.

Ar. بَرََأَ, to create. Job xxxviii. 7. [qu. 4 and 6.]

2. To be free, or guiltless, not obnoxious to punishment. Num. v. 28, 31; and xxxii. 22. Rom. vii. 6.

3. To free; to absolve from a crime; to liberate; to dismiss; to justify. Ex. xx. 7. Num. xiv. 18.

4. To escape; to forsake.

5. To recover from disease; to be healed; to restore to health. Lev. xiii. 18. Josh. v. 8. Matth. iv. 23.

6. To cleanse; to free from impurities.

7. To abstain from.

Deriv. Creator; free; unobnoxious; clean; empty.

Ar. بَرَا, to create.

2. To cut off; to hew or pare.

3. To separate; to distinguish.

4. To make thin.

5. To oppose; to strive; to resist.

6. To provoke; to boast, or make a parade.

7. To distribute; to disperse. Castle.

According to Gesenius, the primary sense of the verb is to hew, to cut out, and thus to make smooth, and thus to create; and he deduces these senses in the same order as he does those of the Arabic verb, which gives the word like. But there is no ground for this opinion; and doubtless the verb originated before the use of edge tools.

The predominant senses of this word, are, to separate, to free, to remove; as we see by the Arabic and Syriac.

Now hewing is indeed separating, and we have the English word pare from this root; but we must seek for a signification which is more general than that of paring, or we shall not be able to account for the sense of making fat, sound, entire, and strong, nor for that of being born.

The truth undoubtedly is, this word is of the same family with the English bear, the Latin pario, and the radical sense is to throw, to thrust, to send, to drive, to extend; hence to throw out, to produce, as applied to the birth of children or of the world. To throw or drive, is the primary sense of separation and division, that is, to drive off. The English word deal, when traced to its root, presents the same fact. See Deal. To create, is to produce or bring forth, the same sense as that of birth, applied to a different object. The sense of hewing and paring is from driving off, separation. In Syriac, we observe the general application, in removal, or departure to a distance. The sense of fattening is derivative, and allied to that of healing or making whole, sound, strong, in the Arabic; that is, preparing, bringing to a good state, or from tension, the usual primary sense of strength and power.

To obtain a more full and satisfactory view of this subject, let us attend to the same word to the modern languages of Europe.
LATIN.
Paro, to prepare, make ready, procure, design, &c.; The radical sense of paro is probably the same as in the Shemitic languages; to produce, to bring forward. So also ready implies an advancing, and so does promptness. But the various ways of preparing a thing for use naturally give to the word, in process of time, a variety of particular significations; each of which results in bringing the thing to the state desired. The compounds of paro, are apparo, to prepare, to furnish, accouter or set out; comparo, to prepare or procure, to make equal, to compare, to join, to dress or make ready; præparo, to prepare; reparo, to repair, to create anew, to regain, to compensate; separo, to separate. Let the Latin uses of this word be compared with the same Hebrew word in Joshua xvii. 15, where it is rendered cut down. “Ascend to the wood country and cut down for thyself;” Septuagint, εκκαθαρον σεαυτω, clear for thyself. This is one mode of preparation for use. In Ezek. xxi. 19, it is rendered choose; Septuagint, διαταξεις, appoint.
ITALIAN.
Parare, to prepare; to garnish; to adorn; to propose an occasion; to parry, or ward off, as a blow; to defend; to cover from or shelter; to repair; to teach a horse to stop, and in horsemanship, to stop; parata, a warding off, a garnishing; parato, prepared, ready, prompt, warded off or parried, shielded, defended.

Apparare, to learn; apparato, learned, prepared; apparato, preparation, garnishment.

Parecchio, a preparation; also equal, even [L. par;] parecchiare, to prepare; pareggiare, to make equal, to compare; apparecchiare, to prepare, to ornament or garnish, to set in order; appareggiare, to put in competition, to match, to equal.

Comparare, to compare.

Disparare, to forget; disparare, sparare, to unfurnish, disgarnish, to make unready; to disbowel, to separate disjoin, unpair; to discharge, as artillery.

Imparare, to learn.

Riparare, to repair, to restore to the first state; to repair, or resort to, or have access to; to parry, or ward off; riparo, reparation, a fort, a bank, fence, mound, remedy, shelter.
SPANISH.
Parar, to prepare; to stop, detain, prevent; to end; to treat or use ill; to stake at cards; to point out the game, as pointers.

Parada, a halt or stopping, end, pause; a fold for cattle; a relay, as of horses; a dam or bank; a stake or bet; a parade, or a place where troops are assembled to exercise; parado, remiss, careless, unemployed.

Par, a pair; a peer; after-birth; the handle of a bell.

Aparar, to stretch out the hands or skirts of a garment for receiving any thing; to dig and heap earth round plants; to close the upper and hind quarter of a shoe to the sole; to couple male and female animals; to dub as a ship.

Aparador, a sideboard, a dresser in a kitchen, a workshop, a wardrobe; aparato, preparation, pomp, show.

Aparear, to match; to suit one thing to another [pair.]

Aparejo, preparation, harness, sizing of a piece of linen or board on which something is to be painted, tackle, rigging employed on board of a ship. [Apparel, parrel.]

Comparar, to compare.

Desparejar, to make unequal.

Disparar, to discharge, as fire-arms.

Amparar, to shelter; to protect. [Aragon, to sequester, as goods.]

Emparedar; to confine or shut up.

Reparar, to repair; to observe carefully, to consider; to mend or correct; to suspend or detain; to guard, defend, protect; to regain strength, or recover from sickness; to right the helm.

Separar, to separate.

Parar, v. t. to stop, to hinder from proceeding; to parry or ward off; to turn or change with regard to inclination or morals; to lay or stake as a wager. Parada, a stopping or place of stopping; a bet or wager.

Amparar, to protect, shelter, defend, abet.

Comparar, to compare; comprar, to buy, to procure.

Aparar, to pare, as an apple; to mend or make a pen; to parry a blow.

Aparelhar, to prepare, to fit, to cut out or rough hew; aparelho, tackle in a ship for hoisting things, Eng. a parrel.

Disparar, to shoot, to discharge, as fire-arms.

Reparar, to repair; to parry in fencing; to advert; to observe; to make amends; to retrieve; to recover; to recruit; to shelter; reparo, in fortification, defense.

Parer, v. i. to stop; paresse, idleness.

Pari, a lay, bet or wager; parier, to bet or lay a wager.

Appareil, preparation, furniture, train, retinue, [Eng. apparel.] Apparaux, tackle, sails and rigging, [Eng. parrel.]

Pair, a peer, an equal; paire, a pair; apparier, to pair, to match.

S’emparer, to seize, to invade.

Reparer, to repair.

Separer, to separate.

Pâr, a cause; the essence, germ or seed of a thing; a spear.

Para, to continue, to endure, to persevere.

Parad, a causing; parai, that causes to be.

Parawd, prepared, ready; parodi, to prepare.

That all the foregoing words in the present European languages, [and several others might have been added,] are formed from one stock or radix, coinciding with the Latin paro, is a fact that admits of no question. The only doubt respecting the correctness of the whole preceding statement, is, whether the Latin paro is radically the same as the Oriental ברא; and with regard to this point, I should suppose the evidence to be convincing. Indeed there is good reason to believe that the Oriental verbs ברא, ברד, דבר, and עבר, are all formed from one primitive radix. Certain it is that the English bear comprehends both the Latin fero and pario, and the latter corresponds nearly with פרה and Eth. ፈረየ fari, to bear.

But admitting only what is certain. that all the foregoing European words are from one radix, we are then to seek for a primary meaning from which may be deduced the following significations; Lat. to prepare; Ital. to adorn, to parry, to stop, to defend, to repair, to learn; Span. to prepare, to stop, to lay or stake as a wager, a pair or couple; Port. to stop, to confine upon or be contiguous, to drive or aim at, to parry, to pare; Fr. to deck, to parry, to stop, to pare; Arm. to dress, to prepare, to parry; Russ. to adjust, to dress, to mow or reap; Welsh, preparedness, contiguity, a pair, a cause, to continue or endure; and several other significations.

The various significations result from throwing, sending, driving. To separate or remove, is to drive or force apart; hence to parry, and hence to defend. Separation implies extension, a drawing out in length or time; hence the Portuguese senses of confining upon, reaching to the limit. This gives the sense of par, equal, that is, of the same extent, and hence coming to, and suiting, as in Latin convenio.

Here let it be observed, that admitting the word par, equal, to belong to this family, as in the Welsh, we have strong reason to believe that the Shemitic דבר, to join, or fit together, to associate, whence as a noun, an associate is formed from the same root, or ברא; for in the Saxon we find not only fera, but gefera, a companion, fellow or peer; gefera, answering precisely to the Oriental word.

The sense of betting is from throwing down, as we say, to lay a wager. The sense of stopping is from setting, fixing, or from parrying. The sense of adorning is from putting on, which is from sending, or from extension, enlargement, as we say, to set off, and hence it is allied to the sense of show, display, parade. Preparation is from producing, bringing forward, or adjusting, making right; and often implies advancing, like ready, prompt, and the latter word, prompt, from promo, to bring forth, affords a good illustration of the words derived from paro.

The senses of cutting off, paring, and the like, require no explanation.

The Italian disparare, and the Spanish and Portuguese disparar, to discharge fire-arms, present the original sense of the root, to send or drive. This sense gives that of the Welsh pâr, a spear, as well as a cause, or that which impels. A spear is a shoot, from the sense of thrusting; and our word spear is probably formed from the root of bar, and Welsh ber, a spit, a pike, a lance, a spear, Lat. veru. Now in Chaldee, a bar is עברא from עבר, to pass, a verb which is probably of the same family with ברא. It is further to be observed that in Italian, bar is written both barra and sbarra.

It is observed above that ברא is the English bear and the Latin pario; but pario would seem to be the Hebrew פרה parah, to be fruitful, to bear fruit, applied plants and animals. But this word seems to denote producing in general, rather than the production of children. However this may be, it is certain that bear in English, as well as in Saxon, expresses the sense of both pario and fero in Latin. The Latin fero, and the Greek φερω, signify both to carry and to produce, as young or fruit. Pario, does not. So in the Gothic, bairan is to carry, gabairan is to carry and to produce young. In German, führen is to carry, and gebüren, to bring forth, to bear a child. In Dutch, beuren is to lift; voeren, to carry; and baaren, to bring forth, as children, to bear, to beget, to cause. Danish, bærer, to carry, to support, and to yield or produce. Sw. båra, to carry; barn, a son. Irish beirim, to bear or bring forth, and to tell or relate, like the Latin fero, whence Fr. parler, to speak.

It appears then that the English bear, and the Saxon from which we have received it, and the Gothic and the Danish corresponding words unite, in the same orthography, the senses of two words of different orthography in other languages. I have found other examples of a similar kind. There is, therefore, solid ground to believe that all these words are from one primitive root; the different modes of writing the word, and the several appropriations, having originated in different families of the great races of men, before languages were reduced to writing; and when they came to be written, each word was written according to its usual pronunciation, and defined according to its use in each family. And by the intermixture of tribes, two or three derivatives of the same stock might have become a part of the same national language. Unquestionably the Greek φερω and φορεω, are branches of the same stock.

We have, in the modern languages, decisive evidence that different verbs may have, and in fact have a common radix. Thus in English list and lust are different modes of writing the same word; both are united in the other Teutonic dialects. So in Latin libet and lubet; and similar instances I have found in almost every language which I have examined.

The Latin pareo, to appear, to come to light, if not a compound word, may be of this family. Paries, a wall, if primarily a partition wall, is of the same stock. Per belongs to this family, as its signification is passing. The Sax. faran, to fare, Gr. πορευομαι, seems to be from one branch of this stock, probably עבר. See the word Pass in the Dictionary, in the derivative senses of which there are some resemblances to those of ברא.

כפר says Castle, “texuit, operuit, Anglice, to cover; per metathesin, κρυπτω, κρυφη, peculiariter bitumine, sive glutinosa aliqua materia obduxit; picavit.” Gen. vi. 14.

Parkhurst gives to this verb the sense of covering or overspreading, as primary; and deduces from it the Greek κρυπτω, and English cover and coffer. He, however, admits that in Isaiah xxviii. 18, it signifies to annul, as a covenant. He also considers the sense of atonement or expiation to be radically that of covering.

Gesenius agrees with the English lexicographers, in assigning to this verb the primary sense of covering or overlaying, as in Gen. vi. 14. He admits that this word has the sense, in Isaiah xxviii. 18, of blotting out, obliterating. But he gives to it the sense of forgiving, in

some passages, in which our version has that of purging away. Ps. lxv. 3; and lxxix. 9. In these passages, Castle renders the word, to be merciful or propitious.

In all these authors there is, I conceive, a radical mistake, in supposing the primary sense to be to cover, and in the opinion that this Hebrew word is the English verb to cover. A still greater mistake is in the supposition of Castle and Parkhurst, that this, by a metathesis, to gives the Greek κρυπτω.

The English word cover comes to us through the French couvrir, from the Italian coprire, a contraction of the Latin co-operio, whence co-operius, Italian coperto, covered, Eng. covert.¹⁵ The Latin aperio, is to open, and operio, is to cover, both from pario, or one of the roots in Br, which has just been explained. The root in these words is per or par, and the sense is varied by prefixes; perhaps ad-pario or ab-pario and ob-pario. Now cover can have no connection with כפר, unless this latter word is a compound, with כ for a prefix. This may be the fact, but the connection, even in that case, is very remote.