261 religious encyclopedia exile of the Israelites Extreme Unction

rights first come into notice in the twelfth century.

For the purpose of rewarding deserving clergy and

scholars, but also, especially later, in order to pro­

vide an income or a higher income for officials and

favorites of the curia, or to please secular rulers,

the popes began in the period named to ,give letters

of commendation to bishops and chapters regarding

the bestowal of benefices, whether vacant or not.

These soon assumed a mandatory character, and

compliance with them was enforced by special

officials and by the employment of ecclesiastical

censures, the right to issue them having been held

since Innocent III. as a part of the papal powers.

The resistance of the persons regularly entitled to

nominate to such offices brought about the formal

reservation of whole classes of benefices to the pope

(see RESERVATIONS, PAPAL). To the expectancies

described above was added in the fifteenth century

the custom of papal nomination of perpetual coadju­

tors with right of succession, either to avoid long

vacancies or contested episcopal elections, or to

assure a see to a member of a particular princely

house, or, especially in tile Reformation period,

to a person of assured loyalty to the papal system.

Besides expectancies conferred by the popes, an­

other class came up in the thirteenth century, in

cathedral and collegiate foundations, varying ac­

cording to their constitution (see CHAPTER), giving

a right to the first vacancy in a limited chapter,

or (where the number of canons was not limited

but that of prebends was) conferring the title of

vacant prebend, or promising both title and prebend

at once. Again, expectancies developed from the

exercise of the jus primariarum precum, according

to which from the thirteenth century the emperors,

the kings of France and England, and later a num­

ber of petty German princes and even empresses

and queens of England, claimed the right on their

accession or coronation to request from each en­

dowed foundation or monastery in their territory

the assignment of a benefice or position, vacant or

to be vacated, to their nominees. This claim,

based at first on custom, was confirmed by papal

indults, and fell into disuse only at the beginning

of the nineteenth century. Many of these develop­

ments were in direct contravention of the ancient

canonical principle which forbade appointments to

ecclesiastical offices before they were vacant, and

even required evasion of the ruling of the Third

Lateran Council of 1179 to the same effect. The

process, however, went on until bishops, founders,

and monasteries were obliged to protect themselves

by special papal indults against the misuse of the

practise. The Council of Trent again forbade all

kinds of expectancies, only allowing the pope to

nominate a coadjutor with right of succession to a

bishop or head of a convent in case of necessity.

This prohibition has, indeed, been interpreted as

referring not to the pope but to other ecclesiastical

dignitaries; but practically, in the altered modern

circumstances, the matter is no longer of impor­

tance. The same thing applies to the Protestant

churches of Germany, which at one time allowed

expectancies to exist in the bishoprics and chapters

BIBLIOGRAPHY: P. Hinsehius, Kirchenrecht, ii. 65, 69, 84, 255, 474, 639, 65'3, iii. 113, 6 vols., Berlin, 1869‑97; J. H. BShmer, Jus ecclesiasticum protestantium, iii. 8, §§ 9 sqq., 4 vols., Halle, 1756‑63; H. C. de Senekenberg, De jure primarum precum, Frankfort, 1784 ; A. Mayer, Thesaurus noaus juris ecclesiastiei, i. 249, Regensburg, 1791.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: ASS, Sept., vii. 623‑630; Tillemont, Ml;‑

moires, Vol. x.

EXTREME UNCTION.

I. In the Roman Catholic Church.

History (§ 1).

Doctrine (§ 2).

Preparation and Administration (§ 3).

II. In the Greek Church.

Extreme unction is one of the minor sacraments of both the Roman and the Greek Churches.

I. In the Roman Catholic Church: Extreme unction is mentioned as the fifth sacrament by Peter Lombard who brings it into close connection with the sacrament of penance. He

r. History. uses two passages as Biblical authori­

ties, Mark vi. 13 and Jas. v. 14‑15.

These passages have, however, little to do with the

sacrament as developed in the Church of Rome.

Extreme unction is not often mentioned in the

early Church. Augustine, Chrysostom, and Ire­

meus speak of it, but do not treat it as a sacrament.

Oil was, however, frequently used by Christians in

private life, chiefly for the anointing of the sick.

Tertullian, for instance, mentions the healing of

Severna, the father of the Emperor Antoninus, with

oil. Popular superstition soon exploited these ex­

periences, and used the oil in the church lamps.

Some bishops, e.g., Chrysostom and Decentius, did

not object, but limited the employment to members

in good standing. Innocent I. also mentions the

anointing of the sick, but not of the moribund; in

case a priest was not available, laymen might per­

form the ceremony. Toward the end of the eighth

century extreme unction entered upon a definite

course of development, and was brought into rela­

tions with remission of sins; it received, conse­

quently, a sacramental character in connection with

penance. The question of the repetition of extreme

unction was raised in the twelfth century. A

popular superstition held that a Christian who,

after participation, had been restored to health was

to be looked upon as one departed: he was not to

touch the ground with bare feet, eat meat, or

cohabit with his wife. When Theodulf of Orl6ans

nitary may administer this sacrament. Even the

pope can not authorize deacons and laymen to do

so, although Innocent I. implies that they may in

case of necessity. The administrator acts as a

representative of the whole Church; and for this

reason it is desirable that several priests be present

to take part in the ceremony. The regulations

concerning the degree of sickness which entitles a

person to receive the sacrament vary, but agree in

the particular that the probability of recovery is

excluded, and that the recipient must be conscious.

The oil is to be applied to the eyes, ears, hands,

nose, and mouth, and to the abdomen and the feet

of males, but not of females. The sacraments of

penance and of the Eucharist should as a rule

precede extreme unction.

II. In the Greek Church: The usage of the Greek Church differs widely from that of Rome both in methodsof administration andindoctrine. Thereit is simply an anointing of the sick, and its purpose is the restoration of health, physical and spiritual. The place of administration is the church, if pos­sible. The ritual is elaborate, and requires seven priests if they are procurable. The oil is conse­crated on each occasion by the senior priest, and each priest repeats the full ceremony while seven selections are read each from the Epistles, Gospels, and collects. On Maundy Thursday the feast of euchelaion (" oil of prayer ") is observed, in which the whole congregation joins and is anointed. The frequent use of the sacrament is recommended.

The Neatorians never use extreme unction; the

Armenian Church has discontinued l ~it.

(F. i1ATTENBUaCH.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: On the Roman sacrament consult: RL, ix. 712‑725: E. Martbne De antiqau ecekaia•, ritibus i.. chap.

7, Antwerp, 1738; A. J. Binterim, DenkvxArdig,~n, vi.

3, pp. 217 eqq., Mains, 1831; J. C. N. Augusti, i)enk_ %OkeLfen. ix. 455 sqq., Leipaio, 1828; J. H. Blunt,

Sacraments and Sacramental Ordinances London, 1867;

idem. Dictionary of „al and Historical Theology, pp



958 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA ~ kime Qaolrioa

771‑773, ib. 1870; F. Probst, Sakramente and Sakra­mentalien, pp. 373 sqq., Tiibingen, 1872; J. H. Oswald, Die dogrratische Lehre von den heiligen Sakramenten, ii. 257 sqq., Munster, 1877; M. Heimbucher, Die heilipe Oelung, Regensburg, 1888; P. Schanz, Die Lehre von den heiligen Sakramenten, pp. 639 sqq., Freiburg, 1893; W. E. Addis and T. Arnold, Catholic Dictionary, pp. 363‑366, London, 1903.

For the G•eek Church consult: W. Gass, Svmbolik der priechiechen Kirche, pp. 292 eqq., Berlin, 1872; F. Katten­buseh, Lehrbuch der verglefichenden Kunleaeionakunde, i. 434 sqq., Freiburg, 1892; A. von Maltzew, Die Sakra­mente der orthodox‑kalholiachen Kirehe, pp. eoexxtiii. eqq.,,. 450‑553, Berlin, 1898; K. Beth, Die orientalische Chria‑

(AUGUST THOLUCKt.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Neuer Nekrolog der Deutachen, Weimar, 1852; ADS, vi. 458.

EZEKIEL. I. The Prophet.

Divisions and Contents (§ 1). Literary Peculi4rities (§ 2).

Symbolic Actions (§ 3).

Other Characteristics (§ 4). Theological Character (§ 5). Relation to the Priest Code (§ 6). L The Prophet: Concerning Ezekiel, the earliest exilic prophet, his book teaches (i. 2, 3, iii. 15, xxix. 17, xl. 1) that he was the son of Buzi, of priestly de­scent (through the Zadokites), that he lived by the river Chebar not far from Tel‑Abib among the cap­tives whom Nebuchadrezzar had deported with King Jehoiachin, and that he labored there as prophet from the fifth to at least the twenty‑seventh year

II. The Book: The prophecy of Ezekiel, the third of the books of the major prophets in the arrangement of the English Version, was no doubt put in systematic form by the prophet himself; it divides into two main parts which correspond to the two periods in which Ezekiel prophesied. The first (i.‑xxiv.) closes with the beginning of the

siege of Jerusalem by Nebuchadrezzar :. Divi‑ (588 B.c.); the second (xxxiii.‑xlviii.)

sions and begins after the destruction of the

Contents. city (586 B.c.). The interval is filled

in by prophecies against foreign na­tions not arranged in strict chronological order (xxv.‑xxxii.). Each main part opens with utter­ances upon the importance and responsibility of Ezekiel's office. The contents vary in a character­istic manner. As long as Jerusalem was standing, the announcement of coming judgment predomi­nated; what had been God's kingdom was to fall utterly; when that had come to pass, the work of reconstruction was to begin. " While in the first half Ezekiel buried the material hope of Israel, which rested on the continued existence of Jerusa­lem and the Temple, in the second he rebuilt in spirit land and people, city and temple " (Kloster­mann). Pronouncement of judgment on the world­nations formed the transition to the establishment of the theocracy in Israel; the episode belongs therefore to the second part.

The literary peculiarities of Ezekiel's book are connected with his position as an exile during its composition. He differed from the earlier prophets, even from his older contemporary Jeremiah, by being removed from the actual theater of history, thus being denied an immediate influence in the

developments of his time, and this 2. Literary affected the form of his oral and writ‑

Peculiari‑ ten speech. His prophecies were no ties. casual addresses to fit passing events,

but were worked out in quiet medita­tion and prepared with literary art, for which he had an evident liking. Not that the short, striking, oracular utterance is wholly wanting; but Ezekiel more often discusses his subject at leisure and his deliverance develops deliberately before his pro­phetic eye (compare the detailed description of his first vision‑chap. i.‑with the brief sketch of the similar vision in Isa. vi.). He is not satisfied with

quently from former prophets. His muse is in­

spired by the entire sacred literature of the past,

especially by the " Mosaic " law, but also by sacred

history and tales of prehistoric times (cf., e.g., Gen.

ii. 8 and Ezek. xxviii. 13; Gen. i. 28 and Ezek.

xxxvi. l l ). Beside this is his artistic realism, which

everywhere produces concrete forms from the

material furnished by the historical, archeological,

and literary store of the theocracy. He was no

mere " scholar," as he has been called, but rather a

creative genius who made his knowledge of the

past useful for new ideas. His sentences are in­

volved, often diffuse, and his language is more

Aramaized than that of Jeremiah; but the clumsi­

ness of expression in Ezekiel's book is partly due

to corruption of the text, which in many passages

can be corrected from the Septuagint.

Passing to the spiritual significance and theolog­ical character of Ezekiel , he has marked points of contact with Jeremiah, who remained in Jerusalem. Both declare with all emphasis the destruction of the Jewish commonwealth to be unavoidable and near at hand, destroying relentlessly the illusory hopes of the patriots and strongly condemning the fraudulent policy of the princes who were trafficking with Egypt. The Levitical character of Ezekiel's prophecies, which portray the city of

g. Theo‑ God and its cultus under a new